“A Comparative Study/Analysis Between the English Language and the Astori Dialect of the Shina Language based on Affixation
(Prefixation
and Suffixation)”.
ABSTRACT
The fundamental principle of this project is to examine or analyze the similarity in the process of affixation (prefixation and suffixation) between the English language and the Astori dialect of the Shina language. Mainly the native vocabulary of the Astori dialect is adopted for this research. All the borrowed and loan words are being neglected because of this we can get awareness about the flexibility of the respective dialect. This similarity looks for the ‘formation of new words’ due to affixation, ‘modification in meaning’ because of affixation, and eventually ‘variation in the class of words’ as a result of affixation. So, all the needed data is arranged from the related texts, articles, books, websites, and native population and actual speakers of this dialect. Thus, the results of this research proved that because of prefixes and suffixes (either in the English language or in the Astori dialect of the Shina language), new words can be formed, the class of words can be changed and meaning also changes in each case. At last, this research has nominated that the flexibility of affixation of the Astori dialect is similar to that of the English language under the case study of the conversion of the ‘noun to noun’, ‘verb to the noun’, noun to the adjective’ and ‘adjective to the noun’ with the help of affixation. Hence, in the future, further studies can be conducted on the remaining parts of speech on the basis of affixation to evaluate the similarity between both of them.
TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE
OF RESEARCH
ABSTRACT
TABLE
OF CONTENT
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Research Problem
1.3
Research Objectives
1.4
Research Questions
1.5
Delimitation of Study
CHAPTER
2
LITERATURE
REVIEW
CHAPTER
3
METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER
4
DISCUSSION/FINDINGS
CHAPTER
5
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In this very passage, we will be looking for a comparative study of the suffixation and prefixation in the English language and the Astori dialect of the Shina language. As Shina (/ʃinãã/ or /ʃiɳãã/) speaking areas are several in number in both India and Pakistan. Therefore, on the basis of Kohistani and Schmidt (2006: 137), The Shina-speaking territories under Pakistani rule include the following: Gilgit, Tangir-Darel, lower Hunza, Chilas, Astor, and the region of Indus Kohistan, while the Shina-speaking ranges in the Neelam (Kishenganga) drainage, the Gurez and Tiliel valleys, the Drass plain, and Ladakh are controlled by India. Shina is spoken in the Gurez Valley of Kashmir Division's District Bandipora and the Drass Area of Kargil District in Ladakh Division in India's northern state of Jammu and Kashmir. Radloff (1992: 122-150) says that the ‘Astori dialect is most familiar (81%) with Gurezi dialect of Shina language’, which is supposed to be famous in one prominent part of Northern Areas of Pakistan. i.e. Astore and people living in this region are called /astorĩje/.
Bailey
(1924: 13-14), was the first to present an in-depth study of the grammar and
phonology of Shina. He proposed three main types (dialects) of Shina based on
his studies: Kohistani, Astori, and Gilgiti. i.e.
a)
Kohistani (Chilasi and Kohistani)
b)
Astori (Gurezi, Astori and Drasi)
c) Gilgiti
So, Bailey believes that 'Gilgit' is the true heartland of the Shina language and that Shina-speaking places include 'Gurez', 'Tiliel’, 'Burzil Valley’, 'valleys of upper Kishenganga’, 'the districts of Astor,' ‘Chilas’, ‘Kohistan’, and 'Gilgit’, among others. Thus, “Astori, Gurezi, and Drasi make up the Astori group” (Radloff. 1992: 122).
We have a total of 31 consonants (sometimes 33, as two are repeated according to the situation) in the Gurezi (Astori) dialect of the Shina language. i.e. p, pʰ, b, t, tʰ, d, k, kʰ, g, ʈ, ʈʰ, ɖ, s, z, ʃ, ʦ, ʦʰ, h, ʧ, ʧʰ, ʒ, m, n, w, j, l, r, ɽ, ʂ, ɳ, ŋ. In addition, there are 5 primary vowels in the Gurezi Shina. Considering length and nasalization, the total number of distinctive vowel phonemes in Shina is 20. Following are the graphemes for the non-nasalized 5 short vowels and non-nasalized 5 long vowels of Gurezi Shina: /i/, /ii/, /e/, /ee/, /a/, /aa/, /u/, /uu/, /o/, /oo/. Whereas, following is given the 10 nasalized vowels: /ĩ/, /ĩĩ/, /ẽ/, /ẽẽ, /ã/, /ãã/, /ũ/, /ũũ/, /õ/, /õõ/ (Ahmed, 2020, 105-109). So, henceforth we will pin down all the necessary words of the Astori dialect according to the above distribution of phonetic transcription.
The most notable thing is that we are going to focus on just similarities between the selected languages only. Furthermore, it is worthful to mention that both under-examined languages have the process of affixation (prefixation and suffixation), which is very influential for new word formation and meaning changing and sometimes word class changing. Thus, our research will draw the attention of the readers toward these three topics that will cover an equal portion of both languages.
Thus,
in the English language, we can find many examples of prefixes and suffixes
that become cause to create new words.
For instance:
Treat – retreat
Fortune –
misfortune
Fix – prefix
Thus, in the above examples ‘re’, ‘mis’, and ‘pre’ are prefixes. So, we can see there is a variation based on meaning and identity.
Similarly,
the Astori dialect has also a concept of prefixes and suffixes which are very
beneficial for new word formation.
/bό/ - /nẻbό/ means ‘don’t go’
/tʰee/ -
/kamtʰee/ means ‘to reduce’
So, in the
above-mentioned examples, ‘nẻ’ and ‘kam’ are
supposed to be prefixed. That changes the meaning and word class as
well.
In
addition, we can also highlight suffixes from the English language as well.
i.e.
Help – helpful
Change –
changeable
Sad – sadness
Thus, words including the above examples ‘ful’, ‘able’, and ‘ness’ are suffixes. Due to this, there is variation in meaning and word class also.
Moreover,
there are so many suffixes in the Astori dialect also, these are
/pijoo̗/
- /pijoo̗nããw/ means
‘drinkable’
/a̗j/ - /a̗jlό/ means ‘goat family’
/aʐó/ - /aʐónó/ means ‘inside’
Hence, the above
examples have example suffixes, that are ‘nããw’, ‘lό’, and ‘nó’. Thus,
the meaning and class of words changed, and eventually, new words formed.
Jones,
W. (1786). Furthermore, says that the comparative technique was established and
successfully used to reconstruct the parent language, Proto-Indo-European and
has been used in the study of other language families. So, without going too
deeply into the subject, let us try to lay down some basic and broad concepts
in comparative linguistics. Comparative linguistics (previously Comparative
Grammar or Comparative Philology- the humanistic study of language and
literature) is the study of the relationships or correspondences between two or
more languages, as well as the methodologies used to determine whether they
share a common ancestor. Eventually, in Europe during the nineteenth century,
comparative grammar was the most prominent branch of linguistics. The discovery
by Sir William Jones that Sanskrit was related to Latin, Greek, and German
sparked the study, also known as comparative philology.
1.2
Research Problem
This
effort will explore the prefixation and suffixation process in the English
language and the Astori dialect of the Shina language. Moreover, this study
would be influential for the investigation of similarities in the affixation
processes of both languages. Eventually, it will propose the meaning-changing
phenomena with the help of suffixation and prefixation in both selected
languages and the changing of word class as well.
1.3
Research Objectives
The
main objectives of this research are as follows:
1. To describe
the suffixation and prefixation phenomena in the English language and Astori
dialect of the Shina language.
2. To determine
the mutual resemblance of the suffixation and prefixation process among both
languages.
3. To verify the
affixation process is influential for meaning changing of the base form of the
targeted word.
4. It will also
explain whether the variation in the word class of base form occurs or
not.
1.4
Research Questions
According
to the supremacy of the topic, our study will be confined to these basic
questions so that is:
1. Do both the
English language and the Astori dialect of the Shina language have an
affixation process?
2. Is there any similarity
between the suffixes and prefixes of both languages?
3. Does
affixation help to change the meaning of the base form (of the word)?
4. Does the word
class remain the same or change after (affixation) formation of a new word and
the meaning change?
1.5 Delimitation of the Study
This little effort of comparison for affixation among both languages focuses on the similarities only. So, it has no relation to the differences between the two targeted languages for their suffixation and prefixation.
Moreover, this study also highlights the prefixation and suffixation process in native words or vocabulary of the Astori dialect of the Shina language only. Thus, all the borrowed words or loan vocabulary have been omitted during this lexical study. In addition, it focuses on the class changing words, meaning changing, and new word formation.
At
last, our study is confined to some conversions including ‘noun to the noun’,
‘verb to the noun’, ‘noun to the adjective’, and ‘adjective to the noun’ only.
While the rest of the parts of speech are not included in this study.
CHAPTER
2
LITERATURE
REVIEW
Literature Review
Ahmed, M. (2020: 77) made an effort to show the purpose of ‘able’, ‘like’, and ‘-ish’, etc. The derived adjectives in the Gurezi dialect are generated by adding suffixes /-ããj/ and /-ããw/ to verbs, nouns, adverbs, and adjectives. These derivative adjectives have a lot of different meanings. For instance, when the adjectives are derived from nouns, these generally convey the meaning of ‘like’ as exemplified in:
Noun Gloss Adjective Gloss
/ʐe̗el/ forest /ʐee.lã̗ãw/,
/ʐee.lã̗ãj/ forest like
/ɡo̗oʂ/ home /ɡoo.ʐã̗ãw/ home like
/mu̗u.ʐu/ rat /muu.ʐã̗ãw/ rat like
/mu.ɳi/ tuber /mu.ɳaã̗̃w/ tuber like
Again
(Ahmed, M. 2020: 78) says that the scope of verb formation from adjectives
is very limited in Gurezi. So, we tried our best to collect some of
them. i.e.
Adjective Root Suffix Verb Gloss
/kri.du̗/ /krid/ʒ/ /-oonu/ /kri.ʒoo̗.nu/ bitter/ to become bitter
/ʐi.gu̗/ /ʐig/ /-oonu/ /ʐi.gjoo̗.nu/ dry/ to become dry
/waa̗.zu/ /was/ /-oonu/ /wa.ʒoo̗.nu/ descending/ to descend
/ʈʃii.̗mu/ /ʈʃiim/ /-oonu/ /ʈʃi.mjoo̗.nu/ thick/ to become thick
/miʂ.tu̗/ /miʂt/ /-oonu/ /miʂ.tjoo.nu/ well/ to become well
/ʈʃi.ʈu̗/ /ʈʃiʈ/ /-oonu/ /ʈʃi.ʈjoo̗.nu/ bitter/ to become bitter
/ʃu.ku̗/ /ʃuk/ /-oonu/ /ʃuk.ʒjoo̗.nu/ dry/ to become dry
Plag
(2003: 98-99) has divided prefixes among four broad categories, with an
additional miscellanea category for prefixes that could never be characterized
adequately. These would be (a) quantitative prefixes such as poly-, semi-,
hyper-, uni-, di-, bi-, multi-, etc. (e.g. polysyllabic, semi-conscious,
hyperactive, unification, ditransitive, bifurcation, multilateral); (b)
locative prefixes such as endo-, counter-, circum-, trans- retro- inter-, etc.
(e.g. endocentric, counterbalance, circumscribe, transmigrate, retroflex,
intergalactic); (c) temporal prefix like pre-, fore-, ante-, neo-, post-, mis-,
mal- etc. (e.g. preconcert, forsee, antedate, neoclassical, postmodify,
mis-trail, malfunction); (d) negative prefixes like un-, in-, de-, a-, non-,
dis-, etc. (e.g. unwrap, inactive, dethrone, asymmetrical, non-commercial,
disagree); and others like vice-, pseudo-, etc. (e.g. vice-regal,
pseudo-archaic).
According
to Quirk (1985: 1546), the affix a- (together with be- and en-) serves
primarily as a class-changing prefix along with little discrete semantic value.
Its meaning is similar to that of the progressive (like aglow = glowing).
Moreover, asleep, atop, abroad, ablaze, and apart are some other examples.
The
varieties on the boundaries of the Kashmiri-speaking zones, Gurezi as well as
Drasi, also developed possession suffix that expresses things for sexual
identity, coinciding only with the gender of a possessive noun, according to
Schmidt (2008: 21). It's most likely due to contact with Kashmiri, where the
possessive suffix inflects to agree with possessive nouns. The following are
some examples of possessive singular cases:
Gilgiti: muliay-ey nom ----- (the girl's
name)
Kohistani: Gozo-ee ʃeron ---- (the roof of the house), gozo-ee tiki ---- (home-made
bread/food)
Rajapurohit, B. (2012: 41). Singular nouns are given the plural suffix -e to render each other plural without altering their noun. Take note of the singular and plural versions that follow.
Singular forms Plural forms
[sin] `River’
[sine] `Rivers’
[pon] `Road’
[pone] `Roads
[ʧhúp] `Bank of
river’ [ʧhúpe] `Banks of river’
[ó:ʃ] `Air’ [ó:ʃe] `Different kinds of Air’
[udú:] `Dust’ [udú:e] `Dusts’
[so:r] `Ice’
[so:re] `Ices’
[kha:y]
`Pebble’ [kha:ye] `Pebbles’
[ró:ŋs] `Deer’ [ró:ŋse] `Deer’
Ahmed,
S. (2020: 4). There are following categories of
verbs that remain verbs by adding the prefixes to the
verbs as follows:
Prefix
Meaning
Verb
Verb
re- ‘again’ organize
reorganize
un- ‘the
opposite of’ cover uncover
mis- ‘the
opposite of’ apply misapply
dis- ‘not,
the opposite of’ please displease
CHAPTER
3
METHODOLOGY
Methodology
To conduct our research, we have gone through the technique of qualitative method of data collection. Therefore, we employed three primary methodologies to examine the similarities between the English language and the Astori dialect of the Shina language on the basis of prefixation and suffixation. Thus, we reviewed articles and related documents, arranged word lists, and attempted interviews.
Moreover, after a micro-level study in affixation of both languages in articles, books and related documents, we assembled a word list of both languages on the basis of similarity in their characteristics. Apart from them, we divided affixes with their respective words to form the combination of affixation and word.
As a result, we came up with new words, meaning changing process and eventually word class variation as well. For instance, the conversion of nouns into nouns, verbs into nouns, nouns into adjectives and adjectives into nouns etc. Hence, this method is adopted to mark the similarity among the selected languages.
At last, several interviews have been taken with the native speakers of the Astori dialect of the Shina language and they were almost 100 in number, in which most of the participants were literate and also were familiar with the concept of prefixation and suffixation in both targeted languages. Also, the location of this sampling was the Astori speakers around the centre area of Gilgit. In addition, for the affixation in the English language we strived in different books and websites as well as in articles also.
CHAPTER
4
DISCUSSION/FINDINGS
Discussion
As previously mentioned, all the selected words for the following discussion are not borrowed from any other language, rather these are the native vocabulary of the Astori dialect of Shina language only. So that the similarities can be extracted purely and appropriately.
Moreover,
this study primarily concentrates on the meaning-changing phenomena undergone
by affixation and also will be beneficial for observing the changing word class
and new word formation during affixation. In addition, it would also
demonstrate that sometimes only meaning changes and new words form but the word
class remains the same, while rarely affixation changes the part of speech as
well. Thus, we will try to present the previously mentioned qualities as a
similarity between both languages. Therefore, our primary target is to reveal
all these words that vary by class on the basis of prefixation and suffixation.
Let’s discuss them one by one;
Prefixes
A prefix is an affix that is
adjoined to the left of the base of a word or comes before the base form and
plays a lexical role – which means it allows for the construction of a large
number of new words. It could be a letter or a group of letters. Prefixes
usually do not change the class of the base word but apart from new word
formation and meaning changing, this effort really focuses on the
class-changing cases also. For instance;
From Nouns to Nouns
Following are a few examples of the English
language from noun to noun conversion with the help of prefixes. So, firstly we
have nouns, then we have prefixes and last, there are nouns (which are a
combination of both prefixes and nouns). As a result, new words are formed but
the class of words remain the same. Thus, ‘tele’, ‘up’, ‘pre’, ‘tri’, ‘mis’ and
‘micro’ are prefixes. i.e.
Nouns
Prefixes
Nouns
Communication tele Telecommunication
Grade
up Upgrade
Position pre Preposition
Angle tri Triangle
Deed mis Misdeed
Scope micro Microscope
Similarly, some examples of the Astori dialect of the Shina language are from noun to noun conversion by using prefixes. So, initially, we have nouns, then there are prefixes, and eventually, we have nouns (a combination of prefixes and nouns). Consequently, new words are formed but the class of words remains the same. Therefore, all sounds like ‘/k/’, ‘/b/’, ‘/dá/’, ‘/hĩ/’, ‘/la/’ and ‘/tr/’ are prefixes of this dialect. i.e.
Nouns
Prefixes
Nouns
(Female goat) (Field)
/ãj/
/k/
/kãj/
(F.
goat)
(Cooked rice)
/ãj/
/b/ /bãj/
(Daughter)
(Grandmother)
/dĩh/
/dá/ /dádĩh/
(Barley)
(Heart)
/joo̗/
/hĩ/
/hĩjoo̗/
(Mud)
(Tail)
/mõʈĩ/
/la/
/lamõʈĩ/
(F. goat)
(Window)
/ãj/
/tr/
/trãj/
From Nouns to Adjectives
In this study, we will see how
prefixes alter the meaning as well as the word class and form new words by
converting nouns into adjectives. So, just observe the below English language
examples where we initially have nouns. There are prefixes and
eventually, there are adjectives (which are a combination of both prefixes
and nouns). So, as a result, meaning changes, new words are formed and the
class of words also differs. Moreover, ‘in’, ‘pre’, ‘post’ and ‘im’ are
prefixes. i.e.
Nouns Prefixes Adjectives
Land in Inland
War pre Pre-war
Meridian
post Postmeridian
Patient im Impatient
Similarly, the Astori dialect of the Shina language
also has the same example meaning from noun to adjective conversion by using
prefixes. So, initially, we have nouns, then there are prefixes and eventually,
there are adjectives (which are a combination of both prefixes and nouns).
Therefore, new words are formed but the class of words also changes. Thus,
‘/sĩ/’, ‘/ʃej/’, ‘/ʃe/’, ‘/p/’ and ‘/l/’ are prefixes of this dialect. i.e.
Nouns Prefixes Adjectives
(Barley) (Handsome/Beautiful)
/joo̗/ /sĩ/ /sĩjoo̗/
(sawdust)
(Unmarried
boy)
/kʰo/
/ʃej/
/ʃejkʰo/
(Cap)
(Unmarried girl)
/kʰo̗j/
/ʃe/ /ʃekʰo̗j/
(Cry)
(Old)
/roono/
/p/ /proono/
(Today)
(Shy)
/aʃ/
/l/
/laʃ/
From Verbs to Nouns
As following are some examples
of the English language in which we can use prefixes to convert verbs to nouns
easily. So, at first, we may counter verbs, then we can see prefixes and at the
end, there are nouns (which are the combination of both prefixes and verbs).
Hence, new words are formed and the class of words also changes. Thus, ‘in’,
‘over’ and ‘anti’ are prefixes of this language. i.e.
Verbs Prefixes Nouns
Come
in
Income
Lay
in
Inlay
Flow
over overflow
dote anti antidote
In the same study, we may
notice that the Astori dialect of the Shina language also have several examples
in which we can use prefixes to convert verb to noun. So, with the beginning we
may counter verbs, then we can see prefixes and at the end, there are nouns
(which are the combination of both prefixes and verbs). As a result, new words
are formed and the class of words also changes. Thus, ‘/bã/’, ‘/ba/’, ‘/ʐa/’, ‘/d/’ and ‘/mi/’ are prefixes. i.e.
Verbs Prefixes Nouns
(Spray) Oxen
/sãr/
/bã/
/bãsãr/
(Putting/to put)
Echo/Beating drum
/ʃõno/
/ba/
/baʃõno/
(To cry)
(Orphan)
/ró:/
/ʐa/
/ʐaró:/
(To come)
(Bull)
õõno/
/d/
/dõõno/
(To gather)
(Bone marrow)
/yó:/
/mi/
/miyoo/
From Adjectives to Nouns
In this part, we can see how prefixes
are altering the meaning as well as the word class and form new words by
converting adjectives into nouns. So, let's study the below English language
examples in which initially we have adjectives. There are prefixes and
finally, we have nouns (which are a combination of both adjectives and
suffixes). In addition, ‘sub’, ‘dis’ and ‘trans’ are prefixes of this
language. i.e.
Adjectives Prefixes Nouns
Marine
sub Submarine
Conscious
sub Subconscious
Lighted dis
Dislighted
National trans Transnational (someone operating in several countries)
Similarly, the Astori dialect of the Shina language
also has noun-to-adjective conversion by using prefixes. So, at the beginning
we have adjectives, then there are prefixes and eventually, there are nouns
(which are a combination of both prefixes and adjectives). Thus, the following
examples have ‘/ʐãʂ/’, ‘/a/’ and ‘/ʈu/’
which are supposed to be prefixes. i.e.
Adjectives Prefixes Nouns
(Curve/bend) (Head of an area)
/ʈẽrõ/
/ʐãʂ/ /ʐãʂʈẽrõ/
(White) (Eyes)
/ʃʰee̗/
/a/
/aʃʰee̗/
(Strict)
(Basket)
/ku̗ri/
/ʈu/
/ʈuku̗ri/
(Blind)
(Walnut)
/tsʰoo/
/a/
/atsʰoo/
Suffixes
A suffix is an affix that is adjoined to the right of the base of a word and changes the meaning the of base form. The most popular suffixes of the English language are –ness, -ed, -er, -est, -ity, -ly, -al, -ous, -ary, -ic, -ish, -less, -like and -y etc.
Suffixes can also be a letter or group of letters. They may change the meaning of a base word, the class of the word and form a new word in the language. So, our primary step is to highlight these facts.
In the following examples, we
will encounter the influence of suffixes on the words of the English language
and the Astori dialect of the Shina language, which basically changes the
meaning, class and formation of new words in the language.
i.e.
From Nouns to Nouns
Here are several examples of
the English language, in which suffixes modify nouns to nouns, that have the
same class but different meanings and form new words. So, firstly we have
nouns, then we have prefixes and last, there are nouns (which are a combination
of both nouns and suffixes). Thus, ‘ess’, ‘er’, ‘yer’ and ‘ness’, are suffixes
of the English language. i.e.
Nouns Suffixes Nouns
Actor ess Actress
Paint
er Painter
Law
yer Lawyer
Poor
ness
Poorness
Tiger
ess
Tigress
Waiter ess Waitress
Similarly, there are many
examples of the Astori dialect of the Shina language from noun to noun
conversion with the help of suffixes. So, initially, we have nouns, then there
are suffixes and eventually, we have nouns (a combination of nouns and
suffixes). Therefore, ‘/ki/’, ‘/ʂek/’, ‘/ló/’, ‘/ro/’, ‘/í/’ and
‘/ŋu/’ are suffixes of this dialect. i.e.
Nouns Suffixes Nouns
(Female servant) (Bubble)
/bó:i/
/ki/
/bó:iki/
(Cow)
(House)
/go:/ /ʂek/ /go:ʂek/
(Cloud)
(Abdomen)
/áʐo/ /ló/
/áʐoló/
(Butter)
(Rock/Stone)
/gí:/ /ro/ /gí:ro/
(Mint) (Ant)
/phílí:l/ /í/ /phílí:lí/
(Fire)
(Maize
stakes)
/pʰu̗u/ /ŋu/ /pʰu̗uŋu/
From Nouns to
Adjectives
In this examination portion,
we will be familiar with the concept that how suffixes modify the meaning as
well as the word class and form new words by converting nouns into adjectives.
Also, this phenomenon can be noticed in both selected languages. So, just
observe the below English language examples in which initially we have
nouns. There are suffixes and eventually, there are adjectives (which are a
combination of both nouns and suffixes). Moreover, ‘full’, ‘able’, ‘ing’
and ‘ous’ are suffixes. i.e.
Nouns Suffixes Adjectives
Cheer full Cheerful
Fashion able Fashionable
Interest
ing Interesting
Danger ous Dangerous
Profession al Professional
Like the English language, the Astori dialect of
the Shina language also has many examples of conversion from noun to adjective
by using suffixes. So, firstly we have nouns, then there are suffixes and last,
there are adjectives (which are a combination of both nouns and suffixes).
Thus, ‘/bo/’, ‘/ʂu/’, ‘/ʈo/’ and ‘’ are suffixes. i.e.
Nouns Suffixes Adjectives
(One) (Alone/Single)
/ek/
/bo/
/ekbo/
(Fire) (Empty)
/pʰu̗u/
/ʂu/ /pʰu̗uʂu/
(Harm/Damage) (Short)
/khu/ /ʈo/ /khuʈo/
From Verbs to Nouns
The following are a few
examples of the English language in which we can use suffixes to convert verbs
into nouns very easily. So, at first, we may find verbs, then we can see
suffixes and at the end, there are nouns (which are a combination of both verbs
and suffixes). Thus, ‘ment’, ‘tion’, ‘ist’ ‘er’ and ‘ar’ all are suffixes. i.e.
Verbs Suffixes Nouns
Establish ment Establishment
Investigate tion Investigation
Accompany ist Accompanist
Rob er Robber
Beg ar Beggar
Just like the English language, our Astori dialect
of the Shina language has several examples of conversion from verb to adjective
by using suffixes. So, first, we have verbs, then there are suffixes and last,
there are nouns (which are a combination of both verbs and suffixes). Thus, ‘/ji/’,
‘/méh/’, ‘/kúr/’, ‘/j/’, ‘/kuɳ/’, ‘/khá/’
and ‘/mo/’ are suffixes. i.e.
Verbs Suffixes Nouns
(Eat) (Itch)
/khá/
/ji/ /khá:ji/
(Snore)
(Date
palm)
/khór/
/méh/
/khórméh/
(Cough)
(Puppy)
/khu/
/kúr/ /khukúr/
(Give)
(Beard)
/dã/
/j/
/dãj/
(Cough)
(Pigeon pea)
/khú/
/kuɳ/
/khúkuɳ/
(Eat)
(Support/Partialities)
/khá/
/khá/
/khári/
(Eat)
(Eater)
/khá/
/mo/
/khámo/
From Adjectives to Nouns
In this area, we can observe
how suffixes are changing the meaning as well as the word class and form new
words by exchanging adjectives for nouns. So, here we will study the English
language examples in which initially we have adjectives. There are
suffixes and finally, we have nouns (a combination of both adjectives
and suffixes). In addition, ‘ness’, ‘dom’, ‘ity’ and ‘y’ are suffixes.
i.e.
Adjectives Suffixes Nouns
Sick ness Sickness
Free dom Freedom
Stupid ity Stupidity
Difficult y Difficulty
Silly ness Silliness
Like others, the Astori dialect of the Shina
language also has several examples of adjective-to-noun conversion with the
help of suffixes. So, at the beginning we have adjectives, then there are
suffixes and eventually, there are nouns (which are a combination of both
adjectives and suffixes). Thus, the following examples have ‘/jar/’,
‘/alo/’ and ‘/jaa̗r/’, which can be considered
suffixes of this regional language. i.e.
Adjectives Suffixes Nouns
(Small) (Poverty)
/ʃuni/
/jar/ /ʃunijar/
(Less) (Blanket)
/kam/
/alo/ /kamalo/
(Bitter) (Bitterness)
/ʈʃi.ʈu̗/
/jaa̗r/ /ʈʃi.ʈjaa̗r/
(Well) (Wellbeing)
/miʂtu̗/
/jaa̗r/ /miʂtjaa̗r/
(Light) (lightness)
/loo̗ku/
/jaa̗r/ /lok.jaa̗r/
CHAPTER
5
CONCLUSION
Conclusion
The
flexibility of every language allows their different aspects to be compared.
That’s why we have made a comparison between the English language and the
Astori dialect of the Shina language on the basis of prefixation and
suffixation. Thus, this little effort was about similarities found in both
languages according to the selected topic. As we have highlighted previously
the dialects of Astori have three subparts named Astori, Gurezi and Drasi. So,
we collected our primary data from pre-existing articles, books, grammar and
websites etc. While other required data is gained from the native speakers of
these dialects living around the centre of Gilgit City. Moreover, we introduced
the concept of prefixation and suffixation, then mentioned their examples from
both languages and then elaborated on all the variations that occur due to the
application of affixation. In addition, we tried our best to portray the
results coming from the suffixation and prefixation phenomenon. This proved
that the meaning of words can be changed with the help of affixation,
similarly, new words can be formed because of prefixation or suffixation and
eventually, we can modify the class of base words that undergo the affixation
process. Finally, both languages have an affixation process and the same
results can be extracted from them after adding prefixes and suffixes. Thus,
this could be the essential similarity between both languages and hence, this
is the basic goal of conducting our research. i.e. the consequences of applying
prefixation and suffixation have the same impact on both languages which is the
greatest similarity among them.
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